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Anatomy of the Heart: Difference between revisions
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==The morphologically right atrium== | ==The morphologically right atrium== | ||
[[Image:Figure5.jpg|thumb|right | [[Image:Figure5.jpg|thumb|right]] | ||
The right atrium is composed of an anterior appendage, a posterior venous sinus, a septal portion and a vestibule. The junction between the appendage and the venous sinus is marked epicardially by an atrial groove the terminal groove, in which lies the sinus node. Inside the chamber, the terminal groove is represented by a muscle bundle, the terminal crest (crista terminalis), from which pectinate muscles radiate into the appendage (Figure 5). The appendage has a characteristic triangular shape and a wide communication with the venous sinus. The smooth-walled venous sinus receives the superior and inferior caval veins in its cephalic and caudal extremities respectively. The coronary sinus opens close to the septal portion and near the opening of the inferior caval vein. The outlet portion of the atrium, the vestibule leading to the tricuspid valve orifice, is also smooth walled. The obliquely orientated atrial septum extends from right posterior to left anterior position. When viewed from the right atrial aspect, the atrial septum is characterised by a muscular rim – the limbus - which surrounds the flap valve of the oval fossa (Figure 5). The extent of the true septum, however, is limited to the flap valve and the immediate part of its surrounding muscular rim. On the epicardial side much of the rim is filled by the interatrial groove which separates the right atrium from the right pulmonary veins posteriorly and superiorly. In its anterior part, the infolded rim contains the continuation of the interatrial groove and its musculature extends to the anterior wall of the right atrium, directly related to the transverse pericardial sinus. Only a small portion of the inferior rim is part of the true atrial septum. Its major portion is the continuation of the right atrial wall, the vestibule, overlying the crest of the ventricular septum (Figure 5). In fetal life, the flap valve of the oval fossa allows venous return mostly from the inferior caval vein to enter the left atrium. After birth the valve is normally large enough to close the interatrial communication as higher left atrial pressure pushes the valve against the muscular rim forming a complete seal. A probe patency (a probe could be passed from right to left atrium through an unsealed antero-superior part of the rim) exists in about a quarter of the normal population and is generally referred to as a PFO. | The right atrium is composed of an anterior appendage, a posterior venous sinus, a septal portion and a vestibule. The junction between the appendage and the venous sinus is marked epicardially by an atrial groove the terminal groove, in which lies the sinus node. Inside the chamber, the terminal groove is represented by a muscle bundle, the terminal crest (crista terminalis), from which pectinate muscles radiate into the appendage (Figure 5). The appendage has a characteristic triangular shape and a wide communication with the venous sinus. The smooth-walled venous sinus receives the superior and inferior caval veins in its cephalic and caudal extremities respectively. The coronary sinus opens close to the septal portion and near the opening of the inferior caval vein. The outlet portion of the atrium, the vestibule leading to the tricuspid valve orifice, is also smooth walled. The obliquely orientated atrial septum extends from right posterior to left anterior position. When viewed from the right atrial aspect, the atrial septum is characterised by a muscular rim – the limbus - which surrounds the flap valve of the oval fossa (Figure 5). The extent of the true septum, however, is limited to the flap valve and the immediate part of its surrounding muscular rim. On the epicardial side much of the rim is filled by the interatrial groove which separates the right atrium from the right pulmonary veins posteriorly and superiorly. In its anterior part, the infolded rim contains the continuation of the interatrial groove and its musculature extends to the anterior wall of the right atrium, directly related to the transverse pericardial sinus. Only a small portion of the inferior rim is part of the true atrial septum. Its major portion is the continuation of the right atrial wall, the vestibule, overlying the crest of the ventricular septum (Figure 5). In fetal life, the flap valve of the oval fossa allows venous return mostly from the inferior caval vein to enter the left atrium. After birth the valve is normally large enough to close the interatrial communication as higher left atrial pressure pushes the valve against the muscular rim forming a complete seal. A probe patency (a probe could be passed from right to left atrium through an unsealed antero-superior part of the rim) exists in about a quarter of the normal population and is generally referred to as a PFO. | ||
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==The morphologically right ventricle== | ==The morphologically right ventricle== | ||
[[Image:Figure7A.jpg|thumb|right]] | [[Image:Figure7A.jpg|thumb|right|A. The right ventricle is opened to show the septum and the muscular crest separating tricuspid from pulmonary valves. The moderator band (open arrow) extends from the foot of the septomarginal trabeculation to the free wall of the right ventricle. Coarse trabeculations fill the apical component.]] | ||
Description of the ventricular chambers is facilitated by considering them in terms of three components - inlet, apical trabecular and outlet. The inlet contains the atrioventricular valve and its tension apparatus; the outlet supports the arterial valve. The apical trabecular portion is the most distinctive in each ventricle being characteristically coarse in the right ventricle (Figure 7A) and fine in the left ventricle. In a similar way, the muscular ventricular septum can be considered in terms of inlet, apical trabecular and outlet portions. A small fibrous area, the membranous septum, is located at this tripartite junction. The attachment of the septal tricuspid valve leaflet divides the membranous septum into atrioventricular and interventricular components (Figure 7B). [[Image:Figure7B.jpg|thumb|left]]It is important to appreciate that the entire ventricular septum is not on one plane. Owing to the 'wrap-around' relationship of the right ventricle to the left ventricle, the various portions are arranged at angles to each other. The inlet septum (between the ventricular inlet portions) is more or less at the sagittal plane of the body. Extending out apically and curving between the inlet and outlet components is the trabecular septum. In lateral projection, the right ventricle is seen to sweep from beneath to above the left ventricle. When viewed in frontal projection the right ventricle passes in front of the left ventricle (Figure 1). A prominent Y-shaped muscle band, the septomarginal trabeculation, is adherent onto the septal surface. Clasped in between the limbs of the septomarginal trabeculation is the supraventricular crest, a distinctive feature of the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve is separated from the pulmonary valve by this crest (Figure 7A). Much of the crest is simply the infolded inner heart curvature with fatty tissue containing the right coronary artery on its epicardial aspect. The body of the septomarginaI trabeculation gives origin to the moderator band that crosses the ventricular cavity to insert to the anterior wall. The right ventricular inlet component extends from the tricuspid valve orifice to the attachment of the papillary muscle but a discrete demarcation is not seen. The tricuspid valve lacks a well-formed fibrous annulus. Its three leaflets are not always easy to identify owing to clefts within its major leaflets. The commissural chords will identify the divisions between the three leafets - the antero-superior, the septal and the postero-inferior. The direct attachment of the septal leaflet to the septum is a distinguishing feature of the tricuspid valve. | Description of the ventricular chambers is facilitated by considering them in terms of three components - inlet, apical trabecular and outlet. The inlet contains the atrioventricular valve and its tension apparatus; the outlet supports the arterial valve. The apical trabecular portion is the most distinctive in each ventricle being characteristically coarse in the right ventricle (Figure 7A) and fine in the left ventricle. In a similar way, the muscular ventricular septum can be considered in terms of inlet, apical trabecular and outlet portions. A small fibrous area, the membranous septum, is located at this tripartite junction. The attachment of the septal tricuspid valve leaflet divides the membranous septum into atrioventricular and interventricular components (Figure 7B). [[Image:Figure7B.jpg|thumb|left|B. This close-up view of the tricuspid valve at the commissure between septal and antero-septal leaflets shows the annulus (broken line) crossing the membranous septum (dots) dividing it into atrioventricular(av) and interventricular(iv) components. ]]It is important to appreciate that the entire ventricular septum is not on one plane. Owing to the 'wrap-around' relationship of the right ventricle to the left ventricle, the various portions are arranged at angles to each other. The inlet septum (between the ventricular inlet portions) is more or less at the sagittal plane of the body. Extending out apically and curving between the inlet and outlet components is the trabecular septum. In lateral projection, the right ventricle is seen to sweep from beneath to above the left ventricle. When viewed in frontal projection the right ventricle passes in front of the left ventricle (Figure 1). A prominent Y-shaped muscle band, the septomarginal trabeculation, is adherent onto the septal surface. Clasped in between the limbs of the septomarginal trabeculation is the supraventricular crest, a distinctive feature of the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve is separated from the pulmonary valve by this crest (Figure 7A). Much of the crest is simply the infolded inner heart curvature with fatty tissue containing the right coronary artery on its epicardial aspect. The body of the septomarginaI trabeculation gives origin to the moderator band that crosses the ventricular cavity to insert to the anterior wall. The right ventricular inlet component extends from the tricuspid valve orifice to the attachment of the papillary muscle but a discrete demarcation is not seen. The tricuspid valve lacks a well-formed fibrous annulus. Its three leaflets are not always easy to identify owing to clefts within its major leaflets. The commissural chords will identify the divisions between the three leafets - the antero-superior, the septal and the postero-inferior. The direct attachment of the septal leaflet to the septum is a distinguishing feature of the tricuspid valve. | ||
==The morphologically left ventricle== | ==The morphologically left ventricle== | ||
[[Image:Figure6A.jpg|thumb|right]] | [[Image:Figure6A.jpg|thumb|right|A. This view from the left-lateral aspect shows the finger-like left atrial appendage with the left atrium situated posteriorly. The left ventricle tapers to a rounded apex.]] | ||
In contrast to the right ventricle, the left ventricle is a conical structure with thick tubular walls tapering to a rounded apex (Figure 6A) where the apical wall becomes as thin as 1-2 mm. Very little of the left ventricle is visible from the front of the heart (Figures 1 and 3A) although in the infant a relatively greater portion may be seen. As with the right ventricle, the left ventricle comprises inlet, trabecular and outlet portions. The acute angle between inlet and outlet portions brings the aortic valve in adjacency and in fibrous continuity with the mitral valve. There is no structure comparable to the supraventricular crest in the left ventricle. There is also no structure corresponding to the septomarginal trabeculation on the smooth septal surface (Figure 8A). | In contrast to the right ventricle, the left ventricle is a conical structure with thick tubular walls tapering to a rounded apex (Figure 6A) where the apical wall becomes as thin as 1-2 mm. Very little of the left ventricle is visible from the front of the heart (Figures 1 and 3A) although in the infant a relatively greater portion may be seen. As with the right ventricle, the left ventricle comprises inlet, trabecular and outlet portions. The acute angle between inlet and outlet portions brings the aortic valve in adjacency and in fibrous continuity with the mitral valve. There is no structure comparable to the supraventricular crest in the left ventricle. There is also no structure corresponding to the septomarginal trabeculation on the smooth septal surface (Figure 8A). | ||
[[Image:Figure8A.jpg|thumb|right]] | [[Image:Figure8A.jpg|thumb|right|A. The left ventricle is opened through its outflow tract into the aortic valve. The aortic valve leaflets are in fibrous continuity with the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve. The fibrous continuity is expanded at the right and left fibrous trigones. The right trigone(asterisk) is the landmark for the atrioventricular conduction bundle. Note how the thickness of the left ventricular wall diminishes remarkably at the apex (open arrow). ]] | ||
The inlet component surrounds and contains the mitral valve and its tension apparatus. The outlet component supports the aortic valve but only half its circumference is muscular while the other half is an area of fibrous continuity between aortic and mitral valves. The aortic (antero-superior) leaflet of the mitral valve is suspended like a curtain between the inlet and outlet components. The deeply wedged posterior position of the aortic outflow tract displaces the mitral valve leaflets away from the septum as contrasted with the septal attachment of the tricuspid valve. The trabecular component has characteristically fine trabeculations (Figure 8A). | The inlet component surrounds and contains the mitral valve and its tension apparatus. The outlet component supports the aortic valve but only half its circumference is muscular while the other half is an area of fibrous continuity between aortic and mitral valves. The aortic (antero-superior) leaflet of the mitral valve is suspended like a curtain between the inlet and outlet components. The deeply wedged posterior position of the aortic outflow tract displaces the mitral valve leaflets away from the septum as contrasted with the septal attachment of the tricuspid valve. The trabecular component has characteristically fine trabeculations (Figure 8A). | ||
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The outlet component supports the aortic valve. The semilunar leaflets are attached within the expanded aortic sinuses (of Valsalva). The sinuses are not strictly in right and left position although they are so designated in consideration of the origins of the coronary arteries. The central position of the aorta places it in close relation to each of the cardiac chambers and valves (Figure 8B). | The outlet component supports the aortic valve. The semilunar leaflets are attached within the expanded aortic sinuses (of Valsalva). The sinuses are not strictly in right and left position although they are so designated in consideration of the origins of the coronary arteries. The central position of the aorta places it in close relation to each of the cardiac chambers and valves (Figure 8B). | ||
[[Image:Figure8B.jpg|thumb|right]] | [[Image:Figure8B.jpg|thumb|right|B. This dissection shows the central location of the aortic valve. L, N and R are the left-coronary, non-coronary and right-coronary aortic sinuses respectively.]] | ||
The commissure between right and left coronary cusps is usually positioned opposite a commissure of the pulmonary valve. The commissure between the left and non-coronary leaflets points towards the left atrium. The commissure between right coronary and non-coronary leaflets lies above the membranous septum and is closely related to the right atrium and right ventricle and the atrioventricular conduction bundle (Figure 8B). | The commissure between right and left coronary cusps is usually positioned opposite a commissure of the pulmonary valve. The commissure between the left and non-coronary leaflets points towards the left atrium. The commissure between right coronary and non-coronary leaflets lies above the membranous septum and is closely related to the right atrium and right ventricle and the atrioventricular conduction bundle (Figure 8B). | ||
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==The coronary circulation== | ==The coronary circulation== | ||
As mentioned previously, the left and right coronary arteries emerge from the left and right coronary sinuses respectively. Usually the arteries arise from within the sinus just beneath or at the level of the aortic bar (sinutubular junction). In the left sinus there is usually a single orifice but in the right sinus it is usual to find multiple orifices where the early branches of the right coronary artery take direct origin. The main coronary arteries pass within the fatty tissues of the atrioventricular and interventricular grooves. The left coronary has a short main stem that branches into the anterior descending and circumflex arteries (Figure 9). The circumflex runs in the left atrioventricular groove and the right coronary artery runs in the right atrioventricular groove to variable lengths. From the atrioventricular groove, the encircling arteries give origin to ventricular and atrial branches. An early atrial branch is the sinus node artery which arises slightly more frequently from the right than the left coronary artery. It usually ascends the interatrial musculature to reach the terminal groove but recent evidence has shown a more variable course. In the majority of hearts the posterior descending artery, which runs in the posterior interventricular groove, is a branch from the right coronary artery and this is termed 'right dominance'. In a little under 10% of hearts the posterior descending is a branch of the circumflex giving 'left dominance'. A 'balanced' circulation is seen when both right and left coronary arteries give rise to parallel posterior descending branches. The artery to the atrioventricular node arises from the dominant artery at the cardiac crux. | As mentioned previously, the left and right coronary arteries emerge from the left and right coronary sinuses respectively. Usually the arteries arise from within the sinus just beneath or at the level of the aortic bar (sinutubular junction). In the left sinus there is usually a single orifice but in the right sinus it is usual to find multiple orifices where the early branches of the right coronary artery take direct origin. The main coronary arteries pass within the fatty tissues of the atrioventricular and interventricular grooves. The left coronary has a short main stem that branches into the anterior descending and circumflex arteries (Figure 9). [[Image:Figure9.jpg|thumb|right|Diagram showing the right (RCA) and left (LCA) coronary arteries and their main ventricular branches. The left anterior descending (LAD) and posterior descending (PDA) coronary arteries mark the anterior and posterior margins of the ventricular septum.]]The circumflex runs in the left atrioventricular groove and the right coronary artery runs in the right atrioventricular groove to variable lengths. From the atrioventricular groove, the encircling arteries give origin to ventricular and atrial branches. An early atrial branch is the sinus node artery which arises slightly more frequently from the right than the left coronary artery. It usually ascends the interatrial musculature to reach the terminal groove but recent evidence has shown a more variable course. In the majority of hearts the posterior descending artery, which runs in the posterior interventricular groove, is a branch from the right coronary artery and this is termed 'right dominance'. In a little under 10% of hearts the posterior descending is a branch of the circumflex giving 'left dominance'. A 'balanced' circulation is seen when both right and left coronary arteries give rise to parallel posterior descending branches. The artery to the atrioventricular node arises from the dominant artery at the cardiac crux. | ||
After passing through the capillary network, coronary arterial blood is collected by venules which drain to the cardiac veins. The veins drain either to the coronary sinus or directly to the cardiac chambers. The great cardiac vein ascends along the anterior descending coronary and turns into the left atrioventricular groove. In the posterior atrioventricular groove it becomes the coronary sinus. It is joined near its entrance to the right atrium by the middle cardiac vein which ascends in the posterior interventricular groove and the small cardiac vein. The latter ascends along the marginal coronary artery before entering the posterior atrioventricular groove. Atrial veins also empty into the coronary sinus. A further group of veins, the anterior cardiac veins, run across the anterior aspect of the heart to drain directly into the right atrium. In addition to the coronary arteries and veins, the heart also has an extensive lymphatic network. These are divided into the deep, middle and superficial plexuses which drain into collecting channels accompanying the major arterial stems and finally into primary lymph nodes situated in the anterior mediastinum. | After passing through the capillary network, coronary arterial blood is collected by venules which drain to the cardiac veins. The veins drain either to the coronary sinus or directly to the cardiac chambers. The great cardiac vein ascends along the anterior descending coronary and turns into the left atrioventricular groove. In the posterior atrioventricular groove it becomes the coronary sinus. It is joined near its entrance to the right atrium by the middle cardiac vein which ascends in the posterior interventricular groove and the small cardiac vein. The latter ascends along the marginal coronary artery before entering the posterior atrioventricular groove. Atrial veins also empty into the coronary sinus. A further group of veins, the anterior cardiac veins, run across the anterior aspect of the heart to drain directly into the right atrium. In addition to the coronary arteries and veins, the heart also has an extensive lymphatic network. These are divided into the deep, middle and superficial plexuses which drain into collecting channels accompanying the major arterial stems and finally into primary lymph nodes situated in the anterior mediastinum. | ||